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Facts about malaria. Twitter Facebook Linked In Mail. Name and nature of infecting organism Malaria is an acute or subacute infectious disease caused by one of four protozoan species of the genus Plasmodium: P. Clinical features The clinical presentation of malaria depends very much on the pattern and intensity of malaria transmission in the area of residence, which determines the degree of protective immunity acquired and, in turn, the clinical disease profile.
Transmission Reservoir There is no animal reservoir for malaria parasites; it is a purely human disease. Transmission mode All four human Plasmodium species are transmitted by the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. Risk groups In endemic areas, populations at higher risk of severe malaria are children under five years of age and pregnant women. Prevention measures Prevention of malaria is currently based on two complementary methods: chemoprophylaxis and protection against mosquito bites.
Chemoprophylaxis In Europe, malaria chemoprophylaxis is only for travellers to malaria endemic countries, which are classified in three or four groups, to determine which drug is recommended for chemoprophylaxis. Personal protection measures against mosquito bites Because of the nocturnal feeding habits of most of Anopheles mosquitoes, malaria transmission occurs primarily at night.
Mosquito control Vector control measures depend on vector species, mosquito biology, epidemiological context, cost and acceptability by populations. Diagnosis The gold standard for laboratory confirmation of malaria remains the identification of malaria parasites in blood films.
Management and treatment Although malaria can be fatal, illness and death from malaria are largely preventable. Key areas of uncertainty Research into an effective vaccine is the subject of an ongoing international effort.
References Baird JK. Effectiveness of antimalarial drugs. N Engl J Med ; Matuschewski and Mueller.. Figure C: Ring-form trophozoite of P. Figure D: Ring-form trophozoite of P. Trophozoites of P. Pigment may be coarse and peripheral. Chromatin is usually in a single mass, less definite in outline. Pigment granules become larger and tend to have a more peripheral arrangement. Figure A: Trophozoite of P. Band-form trophozoites of P.
Figure E: Band-form trophozoite of P. Figure B: Band-form trophozoite of P. Figure C: Band-form trophozoite of P. Figure D: Band-form trophozoite of P. Basket-form trophozoites of P. Figure A: Basket-form trophozoite of P. Figure B: Basket-form trophozoite of P. Figure C: Basket-form trophozoite of P. There is no enlargement of the infected RBC and sometimes there is a reduction in size.
The cytoplasm stains blue and the chromatin pink to red. Abundant dark pigment may be scattered throughout the cytoplasm. Figure E: Developing gametocyte of P. Figure F: Developing gametocyte of P. Figure C: Gametocyte of P. Mature schizonts nearly fill the normal-sized host RBC. Pigment is course and often peripheral. Schizonts can be common in peripheral blood circulation. Figure E: Schizonts of P. Figure I: Schizont of P. Figure F: Schizont of P.
Figure J: Schizont of P. Figure C: Schizonts of P. Figure G: Schizont of P. Figure D: Schizont of P. Figure H: Schizont of P. Plasmodium ovale Ring-form trophozoites of P. Ring-form trophozoites usually contain a single chromatin dot, but may contain double-chromatin dots. Multiply-infected RBCs may be seen, making the rings difficult to differentiate from P.
The sing rings may be difficult to differentiate from P. As the trophozoites mature, they are less amoeboid than P. Infected RBCs are not usually enlarged as in P. Figure A: Ring-form trophozoite of P. Note the multiply-infected RBC in this image. Pigment is less-coarse and diffuse.
Note the fimbriation. Figure F: Infected RBCs showing developing lower and ring-form upper two trophozoites of in a thin blood smear. Figure G: Trophozoites of P. The mature macrogametocyte fills the host RBC; the microgametocyte is smaller. Figure C: Microgametocyte of P. Figure D: Macrogametocyte of P. Figure E: Macrogametocyte of P. Figure F: Macrogametocyte of P. Figure G: Macrogametocyte of P.
Figure H: Macrogametocyte of P. Elongation to an oval shape and fimbriation are common. Pigment is lighter and less coarse, similar to P. Figure B: Schizonts of P. Notice the fimbriation. Figure E: Schizont of P. Figure G: Schizont upper right and ring-form trophozoite lower left of P. Plasmodium vivax Ring-form trophozoites of P. Rings may be difficult to distinguish from those of P.
Multiply-infected RBCs are not uncommon. Figure G: Ring-form trophozoites of P. Pigment tends to be fine and brown. Figure E: Trophozoite of P. Figure F: Trophozoite of P. Today, it would seem that both most virulent agents of human malaria would come from African apes.
Thus, this chapter tries to review available data about the origin of these two Plasmodium species. Malaria is a serious infectious disease. It is caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium and transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes to its vertebrate hosts.
This disease is an important global health problem, especially in sub-Saharan Africa [ 1 ] Figure 1. Indeed, the African region continues to carry a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden [ 1 , 2 ]. Among five Plasmodium species which infect human, two species Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax pose the greatest threat for human health.
For example, P. It is responsible for most malaria-related deaths globally [ 3 ], while P. Map of world malaria distribution. The origin of parasites responsible of human malaria has always been at the center of the debate [ 5 , 6 ]. Understanding the origin of its infectious agents could open a door in the improvement of strategies to fight against the malaria agents which constantly surprise us by their abilities to adapt to the different means of fight put in place.
So then, the questions are as follows: Where do the pathogens responsible for this disease come from in humans? This chapter is a synthesis of the available data on the origin of two most virulent agents of human malaria: P.
Today, the diversity of Plasmodium parasites infecting primates is well documented. First studies based in morphological analysis have reported three species which infect African apes Plasmodium reichenowi , Plasmodium schwetzi , and Plasmodium rodhaini , and some of these were found to resemble human parasites Plasmodium malariae , Plasmodium vivax , and Plasmodium ovale [ 7 ].
The development of molecular tools allowed for a re-examination of Plasmodium diversity [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Data collected over the past years have shown that NHPs are infected with large diversity of Plasmodium belonging to two subgenera Laverania and Plasmodium [ 11 ] Figure 2. The tree of relationship of primate Plasmodium with the currently known categories of hosts.
Primate Plasmodium is subdivided in two subgenera: Laverania and Plasmodium [ 11 ]. Among species classified into Laverania group, four species infect chimpanzees P. Therefore, P. However, this species was described only in Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii and hence is the reason why we believe that could be another species [ 10 ] Figure 2.
Moreover, Mapua and colleagues reported recently several lineages of these parasites among African apes [ 14 ]. To date, all studies on natural populations of apes based on the analysis of fecal samples have shown that no Plasmodium species from the Laverania subgenus is able to infect in natura both hosts gorillas and chimpanzees [ 8 , 13 ], thus suggesting the existence of a strong host specificity due to genetic barrier [ 6 , 15 ].
However, a recent study revealed that this genetic barrier is not completely impermeable [ 16 ]; moreover, in this study, authors reported that the exchanges between gorillas and chimpanzees were possible in confined environments [ 16 ].
Second hypothesis was about the role played by potential vectors [ 17 ]. However, this hypothesis was refuted by a study which showed that vectors had no preference for hosts [ 18 ]. Thus, other ecological factors could play a potential role in host specificity. Distribution of the different subspecies of great apes in Africa and representation of the spread of the different Plasmodium species in these species [ 5 ].
Conversely, subgenus Plasmodium non- Laverania includes several species infecting a large variety of primates of varied origins [Africa, Asia catarrhines , South America platyrrhines and Human] [ 11 ].
Two major facts concerning this group were the emergence of P. In Africa NHPs, five species of this subgenus circulate among monkeys and great apes, two for monkeys P. DAJ [called now Plasmodium mandrilli [ 25 ]] and three for great apes P. In African great apes, both hosts chimpanzee and gorilla are infected with these parasites P.
Thus, these Plasmodium species are not specific hosts, and it would be very interesting to establish the mechanisms which favor host switching for these parasites. Several species were reported as implicate in circulation of malaria parasites in central Africa [ 17 , 18 ].
In African apes three Anopheles species An. Phylogenetic tree of some Plasmodium species found in apes. Apart from African apes, Asian monkeys are also infected by many other species of Plasmodium P. Several other species of Plasmodium were observed among Asian apes by microscopic analyses, but no molecular evidence of the existence of these lineages are available e.
Several studies reported of the different NHP species with same parasites [ 27 ] or many parasites which were found in one species of NHP, for example, four species of simian malaria parasites were characterized in the pig-tailed macaques Macaca nemestrina [ 28 , 29 ].
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